It is a collection of more than 40 years devoted occupation with bamboo, mainly Guadua , the main species of his homeland Colombia, and based on practical work in Latin- American countries, as well as the results of an extensive search of the literature and his friendly contacts with colleagues in many parts of the world.
Journal of Bamboo and Rattan — Brill. Continue with Facebook. Sign up with Google. Log in with Microsoft. Bookmark this article. You can see your Bookmarks on your DeepDyve Library. Sign Up Log In. Copy and paste the desired citation format or use the link below to download a file formatted for EndNote. All DeepDyve websites use cookies to improve your online experience.
They were placed on your computer when you launched this website. You can change your cookie settings through your browser. Open Advanced Search. DeepDyve requires Javascript to function. The growing process of the culm shoot or aerial culm, is the same for species with leptomorph and pachymorph rhizomes, but is different of that of tree trunks.
Unlike trees the bamboo culm does not grow in diameter and the growing process of the culm is carried out by two kinds of meristems known as apical meristem and intercalar meristems. The apical meristem is in charge of the formation of the rhizome shoot, culm base and culm shoot, and branch shoots.
The intercalar meristems located between the nodes, are in charge of th e growing of each of these parts which have been for med by the apical meristems, including the growing.
Once the formation process of the culm shoot is completed by the apical meristem, it stops its function and the growing process or growing of the internodes of th e cu lm shoot continues. Thus each internode has its growing zone or intercalmoy meristem, between the nodes and conseq uently each internode grows separately, starting from the basal internode The culm elongates joint by joint until it reaches its maximum height.
The culm shoot ceases growing on ly when the last internodal growth is completed. It can be confirmed that the growth of each internode is completed when the culm sheaths peel off slightly from their base or sheath scar. Sprout emergence of tropical bamboos is commonly at the onset of the rainy season and in temperate bamboos it is in spring. Nevertheless, it can vary according to the species, the vigour of the mother bamboo, and the environmental condition of the site Even in one bamboo grove, however there are variations of 50 to 60 days between ea rl y and late sprouting.
Young The front roots of the culm base have been removed in order to show the internodes of the culm base. See bamboo carving. The total growth in this time or accumulative growth was cm and the mean daily growth was 6. Shibata observed at Koishikawa Botanical Garden in Tokio in It was measured by Koiehiro Veda on the outskirts of Kioto on June 23, In Colombia, the maxi mum elongation observed in Guadua angustifolia has been 30 cm in 24 hours.
I have observed only elongations of II to 15 cm. Hidalgo Rhizome nA"k --l The growing period is longer for ea rly sprouts and shorter for the late sprouts. Early sprouts tend to develope into larger culms with superior quality. When the precipitation is low the number of sprouts decreases. Ueda , Lu et alI According to Kurz in some provinces of India there is the belief that a thunderstorm is necesary before the bamboo can shoot.
Perhaps this is due to the coincidence of the rainy season and storms. This is confirmed by Wang who says that the Chinese specie Phyllostachys pmecox ,sprouts when thunder occurs in ea rly spring so it is caned Ph.
When the culm shoot of giant bamboos appears on the ground covered with sheaths and it has a height of about 30 to 40 ems, the culm base has reached its maximum diameter, and thereafter this will never increase.
The culm shoot starts growing by elongation of the internodes, starting at the lowest internode. At first they grow slowly, then very fast and finally very slowly again until they complete their full growth. In species of pachymorph type the whole growth takes about 80 days, and in giant species such as Guadua angustifolia.
In species of the leptomorph type, it takes 30 days for the small species and up to days months for the giant species Then it develops the branches and leaves and becomes a mother bamboo before completing th e first year. If the apex of the growing culm shoot is cut off, the elongation of the remaining portion does not stop. This shows that when the intercalar meristems are activated, the apicaJ meristem is deactivated.
Once the full growth of the last internode is co mpleted the height of the culm do not encrease any more. At this point, the growing process of the lateral branches of the culm which are generated from the meristematic zo ne located in the culm buds axiHary meristerns starts. The branch shoot emerge from the buds located on alternate sides of the culm just above the sheath scar at successive nodes, and they elongate in the same way as the culm.
Once the fu ll growth of the last internode is completed. Daily growth of the culm-shoot According to several studi es, the daily growth correlates positively with temperature and negatively with humidity. In most of species of leptomorph type such as those of genus Phyllostachys which sprouts in the spring in Japan, the elongation of the culm sprout occurs more during the day than during the night.
However, the pachymorph bamboos in tropical regions are the opposite. For example, Dend"ocalamus strictus grows twice as much during the night as during the day, and there are species such as Bambusa oldhami which grows three times more during the night than during the day. Jin reported that in the southern region of jiang, China, the total growth of Bambt! Once the culm shoot has finished the elongation of the last internode it becomes a culm.
The culm or stem of bamboos consists of a regular alternation of nodes and internodes, generally hollow, which together with the hard, thick and cylindrical wall gives the culm great mechanical strength.
The nod es are important centers of morphogenetic activity and intercalary growth. Roots and branches emerge only at the nodes and in many species they may be swollen. The culm node consists of sheath scar, the supra-nodal ridge, the diaphragm and the intranode. The nodadl region of bamboos revealed that the anatomical structures are basically similar between pachymorph and leptomorph species.
Most of the bamboos have distinct nodes, which differ in shape amo ng the species. Some pachymorph species develop dense air roots around the nodal ridge at the bottom part of the culm. The form of the diaphragm can vary along one culm. It may be plane or its central part formed upwards or downwards or it may even be folded.
Furthermore, the nodal structure is important for the liquid movement during drying and preservation as well as for the physical and mechanical properties of the culm. T h e inte rno d es are d elimited by a sheath scar, which marks in the exterior surface the insertion of the culm sheath or culm leaf to the culm. The internodes are shorter on the bottom and top of the culm and are generally longer at the middle part of th e culm.
For example in Guadua angustifolia the average lengths are: cm. There are species such as Pieioblastus longint e1'nodios in which the length of the internodes varies between 70 ems. In some species the internodes of th e base are very long as in Den-. Culms of the same clump and with the same high do not have the same number of internodes In Colombia, I have found in two culms of Guadua allgustifolia with lengths of Th is means that there is no relation s hip between the height of the culm and the number of internodes.
Some of the internode characteristics are the surface texture, the combination and pattern of colors, and the type of pubescense. The internodes are usually glabrous and smooth or rough and hairy, becoming glabrous at maturity.
When young they are covered ","ith a waxy coating on top. A characteristic of many bamboos is the appearance of a white exudate on the surlace of the culm internodes. Color of the culms. Not all the bamboo culms are green, some are green with yellow stripes such as Guadua angusnfolia var. Other culms are yellow or yellow with green stripes such as Phyllostachys viridis sulphw'ea and Bambusa vulga";s var. It is important to point Qut that the yellow and green colors of this specie were chosen for the Brazilian flag.
There are species that are black like Phyllosla ehys. Also, there are small white and red species. According to Tai Kai-chi A. The white specie known as Huang ehu Bushy bamboo , "has a skin as white as hoar frost". The white specie which was known as Pai Iu chu, white deer bamboo has the characteristic that "in the hot summer season, the white skin and flesh both become red".
This variety is found in Wuling Changte. Natural culm form s Most of the bamboo species have round culms in section but there is also a specie which has natural square culms, and in ancient China there were also species with triangular culms. It is important to point out that the culm can be deformed artificially, transversally and longitudinally as we will see in other chapter.
The following are some of the unusual bamboo forms: 1. It is said that this bamboo was introduced from China. The earliest references to square bamboo Fang chu in Chinese literature, says that in the year B. The Chinese atribute the squamess of this peculiar bamboo to supernatural powers.
The Ningpo Gazetteer say that a Ko Hsien fairy prepared some elixir of life which he drank and ascended the mountain called Ling feng in Ting hai, where he planted some chopsticks which grew and developed into bamboo with square form. Kuang-chi, This bamboo grows from 3 to 10 meters high.
The squareness is not so evident in smaller and less mature culms as it is in the older and specially the larger cu]ms. This specie is valued chiefly as an ornamental garden plant. It was first discovered in the form of staves being used by Buddhist monks and village elders. The smaller and less squarish culrns were used for opiwn pipes, and the still smaller ones for tobacco pipes.
See How to make square bamboo. This is one of the most beautiful bamboos. The culms of this variety had th,ee angles. In the same book the Pien chu Flat bamboo is also mentioned. According to Sun pu this variety was grown in large numbers in the Kuang lu shan, a.
The culm and the nodes are flat and very long. It is said that this variety has been flattened into this form by the Buddist God. Probably this specie is the same square bamboo or a similar variety. Freakculms There are several bamboo species that suffer a typical deformation during their growing proccess. These deformations are known as freeks and make them valuable pieces used for decorative purposes.
The most important variations are the following: 1. In Japan it is known as Kikko-Chiku. It is considered by botanist as Phyllostachys pubescens var. This is known in Japan as Butsumen-Chicu. It is an unusual form of PhyllostQchys pubeseens. In both cases, the internodes of the lower part of the culms of this two forms are greatly reduced in length and are arranged obliquely in a zigzag fashion. In Budda's face the oblique arrangement of the nodes is such that each node almost form right angles with the nodes immediatelly above and below it.
Pleioblastus gramineus f. This specie has rhizome metamorph anphypodial , culms meters height and a diameters of centimeters. The culms that shoot out with leptomorph branching are normal types, and many of the ones with pachymorph branching are abnormal.
The long spiral culms are used for decoration. Okamurka Abnormality of the internodes According to Zang and Ma , plant species reproduced via asexual means are genetically stable, yet due to their heterozygote nature, some variations and mutations might occur during the process of asexual reproduction, under certain specific conditions.
Mean while, due to the extensive existence of changeable genes, some individual become the chimaera of mutated and unmutated genes. It is not unusual for vegetative plants and their progeny to produce diversifications, variations and mutations.
Due to the fact that this mutation occurs only under certain specific conditions, reverse mutation might occur when the specific conditions disappear. Other examples include Bambusa vu[ga,. A The turtle shell Phyllostachys pubescens var. B -Budda's face bamboo Phyllostachys pubescens. This procedure is applicable to the culms over 7 cm.
In Japan thi method has used as means to judging the quality of the culms. If the culm is longer or the same length as that determinated mathematically. If it is smaller then it is very low quality and consequently has a lower cost. The constant varies according to the species. In Colombia I cut about 60 culms of Guadua angustifolia for my experi ments.
With Prof. Jorge Escobar we took all the measurements of each culm in order to find the "constant" that we had to use in order to calculate approximately the height of a culm in this specie, and the result was For example.
Using the diameter instead of the girth, the height will be: diameter x 3. On the Cotove farm belonging to the Nacional University in the State of Antioquia, near the city of Santa Fe de Antio quia, there is a small plantation 0. However, these characteristics are some time stable and some time unstable in their progenies. The segregation of the progenies often makes producers very uncertain. This is caused by the instability of the genetic factors, or the environmental conditions which playa leading role in the occurence of such diversifications which need convincing test data to be proven.
Therefore, no one is able to take the iniciative in production. In addition there are changeable genes in the vegetative plants which produce chimeras. This can be seen in the chimeras of various colors on the culms, branches and leaves of many bamboo species such as Phyllostachys bambusoides f tanakae Makino, Ph.
Human beings often make use of these variations to breed new bamboo species of various ornamental values. Many species of the genera Phyllostachys, Bambusa, etc.
For example the normal color of the culms, branches and leaves of Ph. Dickason developed an interesting theory related to the identification of the species using as diagnosis the mathematical relationship which exists between the circunference or culm girth "C" taken at a height of 1. Meloccanna bambusoides Trin. He sugested this height 1.
Approximate dimensions of some giant bamboos of genus Guadua at the time of Columbus' arrival in the Americas in Using on the above mathematical relation which allows us to determine approximately the height of the culms of giant species of Genus GuadllO using the girth or circumference of the culm.
For this purpose we can take in account the information which exist about the dimensions of their circumferences at that time. For example; in Then the minimum high of this bamboo was 0. If we compare these dimensions with those that this specie has today: 0. If the exterior diameter was 22 cms.
This means that the length of the internode was about cms. Probably was taken of the center of the culm where are found the largest internodes. Marco Polo said than on his trip to India in Without doubt he was refering to the specie Dendrocalamus giganleus.
According to Prosea , this bamboo today is ems in diameter and 30 meters height. According to the above, the diameter and height of the bamboo culms in Asia and the Americas have been reduced little by little, probably du e to continuous climatic cbanges in the world and to the destruction of the bamboo forests in the last years. The huge dimensions of giant bamboos in ancient China Up until now I have been very sceptical about th e information I had found in several ancient books frol11 China about the extraordinary and incredible dimensions which some bamboos in that country had years ago.
But keeping in mind the reduction of the dimensions of the culms of most of the giant species in the world. I think that this informations could be valid. The circumferece of this bamboo was 3 chan and 6 chi; and the culm thickness was eight or nine "'tsun". This bamboo is so la,. The Treatrise on Agriculture Nung Cheng Chuan Shu compiled by Hsu Kuang-chi and originally published in says that the P'ei chu Giant bamboo is found in the southwestern part of the Han-shan district in Anhui pro-ince.
The thickness of the culm wall is eight or nine 'tsun'. Its lumber can be used for building boats. Its seeds have a good flavor and, if they are eaten they will cure ulcers or sores. The leaves of this variety are like those of the Chiao banana which grows in the La fOli shan range of mountains in the Kuangtung province. In the book Tu Shu Chi Cheng there is information about two varieties from the Fan yu hsien district which have the same characteristics as the above species, but with different names, the '" Dragon duke bamboo" is known as "King of Yueh bamboo" Yueh wang chu which has a culm so thick that it requires about four or five people with joined hands to encircle it.
The opposite in dimensions is the " Lung sun chu D ragon's grandson bamboo which grows in Chen-chou locality in Hunan ussualy in the valleys and ravines. They are as fine and slender as a needle with a height that does not exceed 30 cm. In the second method, "visual factors" that are not vel ' exact are used. In this method the one year old culms of many giant species of genus Guadua are easily recognizable by the emeral green color of the culm, and because they still have the lower sheaths partially fixed to the culm in its lower part.
The three years old culms can be recognized because the green color is not so dark and sman white dots about mm appear on the surface With the years these increase in diameter and become large lichens when the culms are 5 to 6 years old. One of the best methods consists in counting the leaf scars in the branches as is shown in the Fig.
Two years old C. Three years old. The influence of the culm age The influence of the culm's age on its economic value is perhaps greater in bamboos than in any other timber. The age of the culm when cut has an important bearing on its use in the manufacture of industrial products and as material for construction. Age is a very important factor for the development of certain strength properties.
It is the general assumption that bamboo culms mature in about three years and have then reached their maximum strength. According to Liese , investigations with Dendrocalamus strictus have shown that in the green condition, older bamboo culms have higher strength properties than younger ones.
Probably this is the reason why the Chinese used bamboo strips one year old or less for the manufacture of bamboo cables which they use for the construction of suspension bridges with more than one hundred meters of span. The durability of an individual culm varies according to the specie and the maximum is about 12 years at the end of which the culm dies and becomes dry and white. According to my observations the strength of Guadua angustiJolia starts decreasing in the grove when it is about 7 to 8 yeas old, consequently it is recommended that culms up to 6 years old be used in all the fields of construction.
Determination of the culm's age Unlike trees, the diameter and height of a bamboo culm do not determine its age, but certain changes are generally recognizable as the culm becomes older. The only.
Each internode bears a branch bud p rimordium located just above the culm leaf sca r, and may be found from the lowermost node upwards as in Guadua allgustifolia, or from the midculm node upwards. In some species branches develop while the culm is still growing, in others they develop only after the culm reaches its full height. In some bamboos the branch bud is solitary. The branch system is often very characteristic of bamboo genus.
If the apex of the culm is damaged, the dormant primary branch axis of each node will grow and elongate to replace the main culm. The array of branches may develop at a single culm node and is called a branch complement. In bamboos whose culms are branched, it is at the mid-culm nodes than the typical form of the branch complement appears.
The number of branches on each node of the mid-culms is important taxonomically and it differs with the genus. The branch complement appears most typically at the midculm nodes. The lowermost and uppermost branch complement are generally less well developed than those at the mid-culm nodes.
In bamboo plants there is only one bud at each node in all genera. About the branch primordium and its growth. In many. The top branch A belongs to a bamboo one year old. The branches 8 and C belong to plants two and three years old respectively. In Sasa, Sasamo"pha and most Sasaella, the primordial branch axis possesses no basal buds and does not ramify. Phyllostachys typically ramifyes one time and is bina ry; the primary and secondary branches being unequal.
The primary branch emerges, and re main s strongly dominant. Subsequent orders of axes that develop from its basal buds gradually become smaller in size and shorter in length.
While the smallest are those of Arthrostylidium capilliJolium which are no wither than 3 mm. According to Ueda , bamboo leaves fall off at one year after they appear and are renewd. Old leaves change into new leaves at the same time. Even the season and the way of renewal are different according to th e species. The season for the species of large size bamboos is spring in general. This special ability for quick renewal is efficient for staying greeen and heightening the efficiency of photosynthesis.
That is because a bamboo ought to be strong in air polution. In general the small species also stay green by gradual1y changing old leaves for new ones as a unit of individual living bamboos. In japan leaf change of new bamboos with pachymorph rhizome is finished in July. This is the period for vigorous growth of new leaves and is also the period for new rhiwme growth. Th ere is a close re lationship between the lea f change and shoot sprouting.
The number of sprouts is less in leaf changing year, but increases the next year. Use s. Dried mature bamboo leaves are used for deodorising fish oils. At th e same time, there has been the folkl ore belief that th e extracts from the leaves are effective for the treatment of some cancers, and an infusion prepared from them has been drunk.
A lot of useful results are reported by the tests of animals receiving transplanted cancer cells. See Pharmaceutical uses of leaves. Upper part of the sheath of Guadua angustifolia in which it can be seen that the triangular border is continuous around the sheath.
Some different types of sheaths. The upper part of each node consists of meristematic tissue, surrounded by th e culm sheath, which has the function of protecting, support ing and stiffen ing the tender meristematic zone of th e internodes of the culm and branches during their growing process.
According to McClure , when Chinese gardeners wish to dwarf a bamboo, they remove each culm sheath prematurely, beginning with the lowest, before the elongation taking place above its node is completed.
Upon the removal of a sheath, the elongation above its node ceases. The culm-sheath is an important structure for bamboo classification. The shape, size, thickness and hairiness of both the sheath proper and sheath blade and the existence of auricle or oral setae are invaluable for recognizing th e.
The inside face is smooth and shiny; when young the outside or the back is usually covered with irritant hairs which may be white, pale brown, golden brown or black. The sheath also varies in color and may be green, bluish or purpHsh-green, or yellow tinged with orange. Culm sheaths generally shed the culm upon attaining maturity, but may also be persistent Sasa, Pleioblastus , late desiduous Indocalamus Semim'undinaria, Fargesia etc. Dendrocalamus etc. In the external fo rm, the sheaths of Guadua and Chimonobambusa are triangular, wh ile those of Dendrocalamus and Phyllostachys are bell-shaped, and for Schizostachyum and Lignania,they are lanceolate.
Sheath leaves of Chimonobambusa are short and small, and awlshaped. Keng and Wen, Uses: Bamboo sheaths provide substitute material for lining hats and sandals, and used also for packing food. The anatomical structure of the bamboo culm is the basis for understanding the physical and mechanical properties of the culm and its structural behavior.
As men tion ed earlier, the bamboo culm is a tapered cylinder, generally hollow divided into segments or internodes separated by diaphragms nodes which, together with the hard, thick and cylindrical wa ll gives the culm great mechanical strength. While the culmss of most bamboos are hol1ow and erect, in others they are solid and either erect, scandent, or climbing and vinelike.
Solid culms, known as "male bamboos" are found in the Americas in genera Chusquea ,Atractantha. In India are found in the specie Delld,. According to Deogun ,this specie is solid when it grows on arid slopes, ridges and rocky soils, and hollow when it grows in the moisture valleys, and Sometimes some of the lowest internodes of a culm are solid but the rest of the culm is hollow.
Along the culm axis, the average internode length increases from the base to about the middle part, and then decreases to the top of the culm. In the internodes the cells are axially oriented whereas in the nodal diaphragm an intensive branching of the vessels provides transverse and radial conduction through the nodal diaphragm so that all parts of the culm are intenvoven.
Liese The transversal section of an internode wall of a mature culm, shows the following typical anatomical structure: 1 - The epidermis, or outer most layer of the cor tex. The epidermal cells of the cortex are cove red by a cutinized layer or glossy surface known as cuticle composed of cellulose and pectin with a wax coating on top. Beneath the epidermis lies the hipodennis, consisting of several layers of thick -walled sderenchymatous cells Liese, This thin mem bran e may be closely attached to the inner wall or loosely attached even in a one year old culms.
This occurs in the first year in some species Phyllostachys viridigiallcescens, P. According to Takenouchi , In Japan, people used to call this membrane "bamboo paper". It is, of course, a dead and dry pith tissue, not a paper. This membrane was used in playing the J apanese flute by covering a finger hole with it to produce a characteristic sound.
The same author points out that the inner surface of th e culm wall varies with the kind of bamboo. In some species like Pseudosasa japonica Yadake there are small scattered floccose particles resembling cotton which vary in fonn.
They could be fairly large, arranged in cros-stripes or stepladde r, while in others the surface is clean and smooth. It co nsists of. These values vary with the species as can be see in Table There are two types of parenchyma cells: vertically elongated cells x 20 mm and short cube-like ones interspersed between them.
The vertically elongated parenchyma cells are characterized by thicker walls with a polylamellate structure. They already become lignified in the early stages of internodial development or shoot growth, but can still be alive in culms more than ten years old.
The walls of the short parenchyma cells remain mostly non-lignified even in mature culms; these cells have denser cytoplasm and thinner walls and retain their cytoplasmatic activity for a long time.
The function of these two different types of parenchyma cells is still unknown. These dots at the out side and inside of the cross-section have different shapes. Each one of these dots is a vascular bundle. Enlarged photographs of the culm wall showing the vascu lar bundles can be seen in Fig. The gross anatomical structure of a transverse section of any culm internode is detennined by the shape, size, arrangement and nwnber of vascular bundles which are composed of both the mechanical tissue made up by fibers, and the cond1lct ing tissue which consists of two metaxylem vessels, phloem, a few sieve rubes with their companion cells, and protoxylema, which are the main arteries for the longitudinal movement of sap.
The vessels transport water from the roots of the under ground rhiwme all the way to the upper leaves. Because of the length of the bamboo culm the conduct ing tissue is reinforced by an outside mechanical tissue which embrace the conducting tissue and protect it when the culm is bent by the wind.
The vascular bundles are surrounded by the parenchyma ground tissue. According to Taihui and Wenwei the parenchy rna in the vascular bundles serves as a buffer zone contributing to the elasticity of the culms, without which th e culms would be inflexible and brittle. The thickness of culmwall decreases from base to th e top due to th e reducction of its inner portion containing more parenchyma and fewer vascular bundles.
A- Three- dimensional view of a transversal section of a culm wall, showing part 01 the librovascular area with several vascular bundles surrounded by parenchy ma courtesiy 01 W. The upper part of the culm with more vascular bundles and less parenchyma. Only the fibre length exhibits a slight decrease in the top part. Liese Weiner The total number of vascular bundles in the culm wall decreases from outer to inner parts and from the bottom to top.
At the peripheral zone of the culm, the vascular bundles are smaller and numerous, at the inner part of the culm they are larger and fewer, and reach its maximum dimension at the innermost part ofthe culm wall. The vascular bundles immediately below the cortex are circular in transverse section. Towards the midle of the culm wall, the vascular bundles become larger and more widely spaced.
In most species, they exhibit their maximum size and characteristic form in the central part. In the inner culm part, the vascu lar bundles again became smaller. To characterize the two-dimesional variation of vascular bundles in different internodes within a culm, Grosser developed vascular bundles patterns or diagrams for several species in which bundle shape and frequency are given in horizontal rows for succesive internodes.
The density of vascular bundles or number of vascular bundles ocurring in one square millimiter varies from the epidermal layer toward the pith peripheral layer and according to the species.
The density decreases at the second milimeter, 2. Espiloy reported that the density of vascular bundle at the top of the culm is larger than that at the base. It always works. Tradition and modernity merged as a unit. The Wing Pavilion project was conducted by inexperienced students in China, utilizing a participatory action approach to bamboo architectural research.
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