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Pastor, D. Sanchez, N. Aliane, R. Hernandez, G. Mariscal, A. Robles-Gomez, et al. Mileva, A. Gochev, M. Milev, D. Ekert, R. Messnarz, K. Slaven, et al. Castro, E. Caminero, S. Ros, A. Robles-Gomez, L. Tobarra, R. Hernandez, R. Pastor, et al. Tawfik, D. Lowe, S. Murray, M. Villefromoy, M.
Diponio, E. Ruiz, M. Pesquera, F. Garcia, et al. Loro, et al. Monteso, F. Loro, E. Sancristobal, F. Mur, G. Sancristobal, P. Dziabenko, D. Fernandez, et al. Perez-Molina, M. Gomez, R. Orueta, E. Martin, et al. Caminero, R. Tawfik, et al. Pastor-Vargas, R. Caminero, A. Robles-Gomez, M. Sancristobal, R. Martin, F. Garcia-Loro, S. Monteso, et al. Loro, M. Ros, R. Tobarra, A. Pastor, M. Pastor, R. Ros, D. Robles, L. Tobarra, M.
Sancristobal, and M. Losada, S. Sancristobal, and C. Tovar, J. Cubillo, S. Tawfik, G. Colmenar, and J. The chapter addresses the milestones and the most remarkable achievements in each sub-discipline of electrical engineering. The purpose of this study is to gather information about the current remote laboratories development and implementation problems and the limitations associated with different kinds of applications e.
On the other hand, this study paves the way for understanding the technical architecture of remote laboratories and defining their common components independently of the kind of applications.
The conclusion of this study sets bases for the modular architecture defined in Chapter 5. The first set is targeted to the undergraduate engineering curricula and it was deployed in official undergraduate engineering degrees at UNED.
The other, is a set of new advanced remote electronics experiments oriented to postgraduates and apprentices and addresses labor markets and industrial needs in order to diminish the gap between academia and workplace. Industrial-related issues are emphasized in the design in order to allow understanding the behavior of electronics components. This combination, as a result, converted VISIR system into a unique training platform of its kind for remote electronics experiments.
Finally, the chapter addresses the implementation of these experiments in an inter-institutional European online master degree program in Information and Communication System ICS. Strengths and weaknesses of each solution are addressed and a general comparison and discussion are elaborated. This study is helpful for determining the ideal solution to build upon, taking into consideration the technical and pedagogical concerns.
Thus, the conclusion of this study, as well, sets bases for the proposed LaaS paradigm defined in Chapter 5. Foremost, the chapter provides a briefing on the current problems of remote laboratories development and implementation, and how the proposed LaaS paradigm could help tackling these problems. Afterwards, the chapter starts to describe the context of the LaaS paradigm taking into consideration the nature of the more likely to be the Web of tomorrow, the next generation learning environments, and the possible access methods in order to deduce the best scenario of remote laboratories delivery and implementation.
Later, the chapter describes the proposed LaaS paradigm and the of modular remote laboratories concept. Finally, two demonstrative examples are provided, along with a brief summary of the proposed concepts, LaaS and modular remote laboratories.
The prototype is delivered as a set of loosely coupled services—according to the LaaS paradigm—to be consumed within any application container independently of the underlying technology adopted in both. The prototype allows interchanging a component module, the database, between provider and consumer using a standard connector. Consumption results are also provided. Remote Laboratories Applications in 1 Electrical Engineering Education In this chapter, the most relevant applications from universities all around the world are addressed and categorized in regard to their sub-discipline.
Interdisciplinary fields related to electrical engineering such as biomedical engineering and mechatronics and robotics are also addressed. Since computer hardware engineering is derived from several electrical engineering sub-disciplines and computer software engineering are getting everyday more involved in all applications of applied science, both are not listed as a separate sub-discipline. They involve designing, wiring, and measuring circuits. They deal with: passive components such as resistors, capacitors, inductors, and transformers; active components such as diodes, transistors, and thyristors; power supply instruments and function generators; and measuring instruments such as multi-meters and oscilloscopes.
Advanced topics for electronics majors encompass power amplifiers, filters, oscillators and timers, voltage regulators, and power supplies. Further advanced topics includes power electronics, optoelectronics, microelectronics, and nanoelectronics. Among the relevant applications for this kind of practices is [16], in which a remote laboratory was developed for studying the Direct Current DC characteristics of different types of diodes Light-emitting, silicon, and germanium enabling switching between diodes online, Figure 1.
Figure 1. In [17], a remote laboratory was developed for a Bipolar Junction Transistor BJT in a common emitter amplifier circuit. It allows studying effect of amplification, adjusting Q-point, changing value of emitter capacitor and load and enables switching between different resistors and capacitors. In [18], a remote laboratory known as RemotElectLab was developed for basic voltage regulator with output current limitation, Figure 2. It allows measuring voltages and currents at several nodes of the circuit and varying components to understand the implications of voltage input and load over voltage regulation, with and without output current limitation.
Similar approaches have been reported including experiments on half and full wave rectifiers, clipper and clamping circuits, operational amplifiers, power amplifiers, and filters. NetLab A remarkable approach, which provides a rich and interactive multiuser collaborative learning environment is NetLab [19], Figure 3. It supports a maximum of 16 two-terminal components and it is primarily used for experiments like investigating RC or RL filters and their transient responses, exploring RLC resonant circuits and other common basic experiments.
Its Graphical User Interface GUI is its most distinctive part; it has been designed with the intention of giving students the feeling of working in a real laboratory as far as possible. A booking system is also provided within the software application and more than one user are allowed to have full control of the system at the same time. However, the number of concurrent users is limited to three, each with one hour time session, in order to prevent chaos in the laboratory. This provides students with the option to choose a laboratory partner even from another country.
Lecturer or administrator can set a limit on a number of hours per week that each student can book. A chat window is provided within the GUI; it displays the names of all logged-on users, including administrators. So students can easily detect the presence of a lecturer or another administrator who can help them if they need assistance.
A Web cam, fully controllable by the user, is included. A detailed user guide, divided into 8 different chapters, is provided. A control window included in the GUI broadcasts the actions of all users. The available components are: four variable resistors, two variable capacitors, a variable inductor—each with resistance adjustable over 4 decade range, and an in-house built turn linear transformer. The available instruments are: a digital oscilloscope, a function generator and a digital multi-meter.
All these instruments are also connected to a 16x16 programmable relay switching matrix, which provides the user with an option to wire and configure various electrical circuits from available components and instruments. Figure 3. The user can develop a program to interact with these peripherals and test the functionalities and the real behavior of the programmed functions. It deals with micrometer scale or smaller and microelectronic equivalent of electronics components and logic family.
This kind of ICs can have from tens of thousands up to several billion of transistors in a single large silicon substrate. It is used in the design of operational amplifiers, linear regulators, phase locked loops, oscillators and active filters.
A remote laboratory application example is found in [21] where a remote laboratory, based on the proprietary measurement environment DefSim www.
A dedicated IC with a large variety of intentionally injected physical defects over different short and open faults has been implemented in a measurement box, which serves as an interface to the computer and it is connected to it through a Universal Serial Bus USB port.
DefSim supports two basic test modes: voltage and quiescent supply current IDDQ testing, which provides an opportunity for a deeper study of particular defects. Laboratory exercise includes: test generation for opens and shorts; circuit truth table calculation; check of the efficiency of SAF test in detection of shorts and opens; detection and localization of an unknown defect; comparison of logic test and IDDQ testing efficiencies; analysis and comparison of test results with results obtained from simulation; and evaluation of different test generation methods in covering real defects.
Another example is found in [22]; a remote laboratory for microelectronic circuit fabrication was developed, Figure 4. Motorized test probes are controlled remotely with high precision and can access any point in the visual field under the microscope. Students can freely move across the wafer surface and explore the characteristics of different components in their design.
Lighting is also adjusted remotely. Figure 4. Power Systems and Electric Machines A power system or an electric grid consists of three main subsystems: generation subsystem, transmission subsystem, and distribution subsystem. The transmission subsystem transmits the electricity to the load centers and it is referred to the transmission substation equipment e.
The distribution subsystem, which is located near demand centers, continues to transmit the power to the customers and it is associated with low and medium voltage power lines, pole transformers, protection equipment e. The generated electric power is stepped up to a higher voltage at which it connects to the transmission subsystem.
The transmission subsystem will move the power long distances until it reaches the distribution subsystem where the power will be stepped down from a transmission level voltage to a distribution level voltage. Finally, upon arrival at the service location, the power is stepped down again from the distribution voltage to the required service voltage.
Energy is usually transmitted within a grid with three-phase Alternating current AC. High Voltage Direct Current HVDC is used for greater efficiency in transmitting large amounts of power over long distances or in submarine power cables.
Single-phase AC is used only for distribution to end users and homes, while three-phase AC is used by industry or sites with large poly-phase induction motors. The new emerging grids smart grids create an automated and distributed advanced energy delivery network in which the physical infrastructure is replaced with a digital one.
Smart grids use ICT to operate in an automated fashion to improve the efficiency, reliability, economics, and sustainability of the production and distribution of electricity. It is often referred to transformer as well. Electric machines usually have an electronic controller circuit or a drive, which can be a separate inverter or a built-in commutator that allows the machine to be powered by both AC and DC current e.
Electric machines can be classified into: 1 electromagnetic-rotor machines, those which have some kind of electric current in the rotor to create a magnetic field i. Electric machines can be: synchronous, meaning that the magnetic field set up by the stator coils rotates with the same speed as the rotor; or asynchronous, meaning that there is a speed difference.
PM machines and reluctance machines are always synchronous. Induction machines are usually asynchronous unless there are superconductors in the rotor windings. Brushed machines with rotor windings can be either synchronous or asynchronous depending on the frequency of the DC or AC current feeding the rotor. Selection between different types of electric machines is based on many factors among them efficiency, cost, power, duty cycle, peak torque and controller circuit.
Remote laboratories applications in this field are numerous. In [23], a remote laboratory was developed for controlling and measuring parameters of separately excited dc motor and generator Figure 5. The DC machines are operated by a 0— V, 50 Hz power line supply with a current range of 0—10 A and speed range of 0— rpm. Four Boolean control knobs i.
Two basic experiments are supported for the separately excited dc motor: variation of motor speed with the armature voltage keeping field current constant, and variation of motor speed with field current keeping armature voltage constant. Similarly, two basic experiments are supported for the separately excited dc generator: variation of terminal voltage with generator field current keeping speed constant—at no-load, and variation of terminal voltage with load current keeping generator field current constant—at load.
Figure 5. In [24], a remote laboratory was developed for DC motor speed control using four-quadrant controller unit, Figure 6. The speed control is implemented by changing armature voltage. Students send remotely Pulse Width Modulation PWM and direction signals to the motor, which allows it to run in the four quadrants.
The PWM signals, the motor current, the voltage, and the speed values are measured and plotted graphs are generated. A Webcam is available for real-time monitoring. Another example is found in [25] where remote laboratory was developed for vector-controlled or field oriented-controlled induction motor using high-performance drive—highly optimized for fast arithmetic and lower sampling time i.
Renewable Energy Renewable energy is a green or eco-friendly source of energy alternative to other energy sources, such as fossil and nuclear fuels derivatives, which result in significant energy security and economic benefits in the short and long term. The common renewable energy types are: solar e. The major concern of engineers and scientists in this field is to provide an efficient and sustainable renewable energy ensuring the matching between the renewal and consumption rate and ensuring the addressing of the global demand, which is expected to be achieved in the near future.
A remote laboratory application is found in [26], wherein a remote laboratory was developed for measuring the I-V characteristics of a 15 cm2 monocrystalline silicon solar cell, Figure 7. A variable capacitor load is applied to the output of the solar cell. A 50 W halogen light bulb with an aluminum reflector—assuring a light spot with a high uniformity—is used as a light source. A temperature sensor with a small thermal inertia is placed in intimate contact with the solar cell.
Four photoresistors are placed in the corners of the solar cell in order to obtain the feedback about the lighting level. The equipment is placed inside a box to ensure to eliminate the interference of any external light source. The sample rate and number of samples taken during measurements can be configured. Students can monitor the temperature level, the lighting level. For each adjustment, the graph of the current, voltage, temperature, and spectrum evolution is plotted.
Signal Processing Signal processing is a mathematically oriented field, which deals with signal extraction from physical systems along with any subsequent transformation of its attributes, using mathematical and experimental methods, for the purpose of monitoring, analyzing, synthesizing, or manipulation of such information. Analog signal processing—as in legacy radio, telephone, radar, and television systems—may involve the amplification and filtering of audio signals for audio equipment or the modulation and demodulation of signals for telecommunications.
Analog values are typically represented as a voltage, electric current, or electric charge. Analog processing elements include capacitors, resistors, inductors and transistors.
Figure 7. Some of the common types of sensors used for collecting data are: microphones, which measure acoustic or sound data; seismometers, which measure earth motion; photocells, which measure light intensity; thermistors, which measure temperature; and oscilloscopes, which measure voltage. DSPs are specialized type of microprocessors that tend to provide lower-cost solution, with better performance, and lower latency.
In [27], a remote laboratory was developed for conducting Active Noise Control ANC covering beginners level such as simple experimental measurements to advanced users and even researchers such as algorithm development and their performance evaluation on DSP, Figure 8.
Necessary steps involved in an ANC experiment such as validity of ANC, forward path estimation, and active control applied to a broad band random noise 0- Hz in a ventilation duct. The initial laboratory setup is aimed at a single channel feed forward ANC applied to a circular ventilation duct. Inside the duct are four reference microphones and one error microphone of ordinary quality fixed.
Two loudspeakers are placed at each end of the ventilation duct: one acting as a source primary noise speaker and the other as a control secondary noise speaker. A four channel dynamic signal analyzer is used for analysis of the control and measurement signals and as well acts as a signal source to the primary noise speaker. Adaptive control Least Mean Square LMS algorithms is implemented on a DSP board to keep track of non-stationary behavior of the primary noise and steers the secondary speaker.
The necessary amplification and filtering anti-aliasing and re-construction of the signals from the microphones and control signals from the DSP can be easily adjusted. A GUI of the frontal panel of the signal analyzer is provided for controlling and monitoring the signals. It steers the DSP board from a client computer over the internet and provides user with functionalities such as file operations project management, compiling source code, downloading the executable to the DSP, and a series of debugging features remotely.
The system also allows general experiments in the field of acoustics and digital signal processor. The microphones and speakers installed at different positions along the length of the duct provide the possibility of the ANC laboratory setup to be used for a wide range of acoustic experiments.
Based on the dimensions of the duct students can verify and understand plane wave propagation, mode shapes and standing waves produced in the duct. On the other hand, the digital signal processor used in the remote laboratory is a general purpose floating point processor with fixed point processing modules on board as well.
It can be used for students to train on DSP programming, optimization, and memory management in general. Telecommunications Telecommunication is a field of engineering that deals with transmission of information through electromagnetic waves.
Telecommunication technologies include telegraph, telephone, radio, signal lamps i. Communications signals can be either by analog signals or digital signals where information is encoded as a set of discrete values. Examples of channels include solid, liquid, or gas for sound communications and twisted pair wires e. Figure 8. Modulation is used to convey digital or analog information signal inside a carrier signal i. Multiple analog or digital message signals are combined into one signal over a shared medium by means of MUX.
It enables changing the frequency of the precision waveform generator proportional to an input DC voltage , the carrier frequency of the FM signal by switching between different resistors , and the amplitude and frequency of the input signal. The waveforms and the spectrum of the FM signals are monitored and stored for computing experimental parameters such as modulation index and transmission bandwidth of the output signal. It supports simulation and data acquisition modes enabling users to compare real and ideal DSSS communication scenarios.
Another example is shown in [30] wherein a remote laboratory was developed for realizing and configuring an ordinary AM circuit, in which a DC offset is added to the message signal, giving the liberty of manipulating knops and switches and remote wiring between nodes. The message signal, the carrier signal, and the desired output AM signal are monitored online.
The basic physical quantities of an instrumentation application are: current, energy, force, frequency, length, mass, pressure, power, resistance, temperature, velocity, and voltage. Sensors convert a signal from one form of energy to another i. Signal conditioning consists of amplification, filtering, limiting, and other operations that prepare the raw instrument input signal for further operations.
Signal processing applies some algorithm to the input signal in order to obtain meaningful information. Signal conditioning and processing operations may be performed using analog or digital circuit techniques, or using a combination of methods. Measurements are most commonly made in the International System of Units SI system, it was built around seven base units i. A remote laboratory application for measuring elastic properties of an aluminum specimen is found in [31].
It consists of a remotely manipulated cantilever beam instrumented with resistance strain gauges, Figure 9. Students gets numerical, graphical, and live video output information and receive e-mailed experimental results. Several testes are performed by applying a set of discrete loads increments. In [32], a remote laboratory was developed for performing characterization experiments on transducers in general and acceleration and Speed transducers i.
The readings of the angular velocity i. Figure 9. Control Control engineers apply control theory to model dynamic systems e. In a closed-loop control, sensors measure the states or outputs of the dynamic system or the device being controlled and fed them back using actuators as an input to the process and thus making corrections toward the desired performance. In contrast, in open-loop control, no measurement of the system output is used to alter the control—predicting the necessarily outputs to achieve the desired states and assuming there are no disturbances to the system.
If the designed control of a device performs without direct human intervention for correction it is called automatic control i. In digital control, Laplace transform is replaced with Z-transform.
Proportional Integral Derivative PID controllers are the most common controllers designed using classical control. Modern control deals with more sophisticated and MIMO systems.
It utilizes the time-domain state space representation which is valid for linear and nonlinear systems. Modern control methods encompasses nonlinear, adaptive, and robust control.
Unlike the frequency domain approach, the use of the state space representation is not limited to systems with linear components and zero initial conditions. For linear systems, stability can be obtained by directly placing the poles of the transfer function using design techniques such as root locus, Bode plot, Nyquist stability criterion, and Full State Feedback FSF. For nonlinear systems, specific techniques are adopted to linearize the system and to ensure stability such as Gain scheduling, feedback linearization, and Lyapunov's theory.
Intelligent control is an emergent alternative control type that uses various artificial intelligence approaches such as fuzzy logic and neural networks. In [33], a remote laboratory was developed for learning control theory with DC motors and to compare between different control loops, Figure Three control loops are configured in order to study the corresponding feedback effects: 1 position control of a DC motor, using a potentiometer attached to the motor shaft as a sensor in the feedback loop and an ideal standard algorithm PID module as a control algorithm; 2 speed control of a DC motor, using a tachogenerator attached to the motor shaft as a sensor in the feedback loop and also the PID module as a control algorithm; and 3 double feedback loop position and speed to improve the position control of the DC motor.
In the GUI, a diagram of the overall connection is provided using embedded images of the real modules of the MS Optionally, a Webcam is provided to capture the feedback. One of the charts displays the setpoint and the controlled variable i. The values of setpoint and PID parameters can be modified using the sliders.
Industrial Control Systems ICSs ICSs are computer-controlled systems that monitor and control industrial processes, enabling automation and lights-out manufacturing. The incentive for applying ICSs either in infrastructure or facility-based processes is to realize tasks beyond those possible with current human labor capabilities.
ICSs reduces costs and operation time or cycle time and replace humans in tasks that involve hard physical, monotonous, or risky work. This increases productivity, quality, accuracy, and robustness. Figure SCADA systems exhibit predominantly large-scale distributed control system that can include multiple sites, and large distances.
The differences between a DCS and a SCADA is often subtle and boundaries between both systems are blurring as time goes on, owing to advances in technology that allow the functionality of each to overlap.
MTU is the master supervisory computer or central host that might be a single computer or a cluster of computer servers. A PLC is an industrial microcontroller system, armored for severe industrial environments conditions, with hardware and software that are specifically adapted to the industrial environment.
It is programmed in ladder logic, which is conceived to be easy to grasp by technicians. Typically a ladder logic languages from a manufacturer will not be completely compatible with products from other manufacturer. These communication protocols are all ICS-vendor specific but are widely adopted and used.
In [34], a remote laboratory was developed to allow students programming a PLC that derives several experimental stations. Students solve a number of exercises proposed by the instructor using various IEC —3 languages— commonly SFC and ladder logic. Afterwards, they check the results and supervise the process they are controlling through a Webcam. The experimental stations are illuminated by a lamp which is switched from a digital output of the PLC.
The stations communicate with the PLC either directly or through converters and sensors. The aim of these experiments is to design different control strategies using PLC and to be familiar with real industrial applications. Another example is found in [35, 36], where a remote laboratory was developed for industrial real systems among them: a quadruple-tank industrial scale model to study SISO and MIMO systems Figure 11 ; an electro-pneumatic system with an IRB S4 robot from ABB; an industrial pilot plant with two reactors and three associated utilities circuits heat, steam, and freeze ; and an AC motor with a variable frequency drive.
The purpose is to teach students automatic control principles as well as programming PLCs. Thus, students work with two environments simultaneously.
Then, they debug the control strategy online and monitor the status of the process by means of a SCADA system—a conjunction of motorized cameras and a GUI. Students have access to theoretical and practical documentation and instrumentation data sheet.
Typically, their core unit is a microprocessor, which is a multipurpose programmable device that includes an Arithmetic Logic Unit ALU for mathematical operations and a control unit for retrieving instructions stored in its memory and processing accordingly the input digital signals through the ALU. The Central Processing Unit CPU of an embedded system could be a single microprocessor or more in case of multi-core processors. DSP is an optimized type of microprocessors with higher clock speeds, mathematical operations capacity, and also power consumption.
Compilers and assemblers are used to convert high-level language and assembly language codes or respectively into machine language. Embedded microprocessors can be either hard-macro or soft core that are implemented using logic synthesis—such as Nios II from Altera www.
In [37], a remote laboratory was developed for programming a AT89S51 microcontroller evaluation board from Atmel www. An embedded Web server is built using an AT89S52 microcontroller and serves as a user interface UI to control the experiment microcontroller board via internet. Users upload binary files to the target board, observe the changes via a Webcam and interact with the target board through virtual keyboard. A chat application is available within the software of the embedded Web server.
The embedded Web server receives the code from users in form of a binary file and upload it to the flash memory of the experiment microcontroller board.
The embedded Web server, additionally, sends log report to the database server and sends messages to the chat application. Remote laboratory for programming a microcontroller [37]. Mechatronics engineering, like systems engineering, is a multidisciplinary field of engineering but it focuses on smaller details rather than larger generalizations and relationships.
Mechatronic design deals with the integrated and optimal design of a mechanical system controlled with embedded electronic components. Thus, a mechatronic system consists of a mechanical part that performs certain motions and an electronic part that controls and adds intelligence to the system using control and artificial intelligence techniques. Mechatronics and robotics are distinguished by their dexterous manipulation capability in that robots can work, position, and move tools and other objects with far greater dexterity than other electromechanical machine.
Mass production of products in heavy industries such as aerospace and automotive are no longer possible without using robots while meeting currently accepted quality and cost levels. Robots preform jobs more cheaply, accurately and reliably than humans with high endurance, speed, and precision. Robots could be android or humanoid robots that look like humans or stationary robots including robot arms that operate on the factory floor performing a wide variety of tasks.
The robot communicates with the laboratory server using Bluetooth. The laboratory is equipped with a high resolution camera that computes the position of the robot over the floor and a Webcam that gives students the visual feedback of the robot operation. The robot is equipped with three high bright LEDs that form an isosceles triangle, which is used to compute its position. First, a video frame is captured then the image is processed and the centroid of each individual LED is computed.
Once the corrected positions of the points are computed, the image is transformed from camera frame to floor coordinates, which finally yields the real positions of the lights on the surface where the robot moves. Since the positions of the LEDs are known, it is straight forward to compute the center of mass of the robot and its orientation from the positions of the triangle vertex, and then estimate the velocities by a finite difference. It is possible to take manual control of the robot, which allows to send the movement commands directly to it by using the arrow buttons, or to execute it in the automatic mode, where the behavior of the robot is determined by the signal processing and control algorithms previously written and uploaded by students.
One possible configuration of the system is built by following the ready-to-use structure, described in the NXT user guide , with some minor modifications like adding three lights in order to be tracked by the artificial vision subsystem.
A simple and intuitive GUI is provided, which contains the state of the system; the positions, the velocities, the state of the battery, and the error. By using other types of sensors equipped in the robot, other configurations are possible, which yields interesting practices such as multi-sensor fusion, Inertial Navigation System INS , Kalman filter, and visual odometry. Biomedical Engineering Biomedical engineering deals with the application of engineering in biological systems or living organisms e.
Engineering and technology principles are applied to understand, mimic, modify and control biological systems. Disciplines within biomedical engineering could be classified into fundamentals and applications. Fundamentals encompass biomedical system analysis, biomechanics, biomaterials, and bioelectronics, whilst applications encompass medical devices, diagnostic equipment design, surgery, rehabilitation engineering and prosthetics design, and clinical engineering.
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